PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - CHAPTER 10 - A CHEST OF WHICH YOU MAY BE PROUD - By Mark H. Berry

OF FIRST IMPORTANCE IN GENUINE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. THE ESSENTIALS OF CHEST DEVELOPMENT GOVERN THE BUILDING OF THE ENTIRE BODY.

Too many false impressions exist in connection with the expansion and development of the chest. The idea seems to be quite general that in order to bring about an enlargement of the chest you must breathe deeply, meanwhile expanding the chest and extending the arms to assist in a greater expansion. This idea was at first the talking point of free hand and calisthenic exercise propagandists, but has since been incorporated into the light apparatus field. The habit of regularly breathing deeply is healthful, and should be adopted by everyone. However, deep breathing exercises, practiced at intervals, during which time you force a greater amount of air into the lungs than is required for physical needs of the body, has no important value in the scheme of physical training or development. A quantity of air beyond normal requirements is only needed during and immediately after physical exertion. The tissues all over the body are in need of more oxygen as a result of the physical exertion, the blood must discharge the carbonic acid in the lungs and gather up the life giving oxygen, carrying it back to the tissues of the body. We are merely hinting at this process at this particular time, but did consider the subject at considerable length in the chapter on Physiology.

For the present, let us assure you that it is necessary to accompany deep breathing with fairly strenuous exertion if you wish to derive any amount of benefit so far as the lungs and chest are concerned. You must create a demand for more oxygen by means of hard work. Furthermore, if you expect the chest to remain at an increased normal size after becoming accustomed to special chest exercises, it is necessary to strengthen certain muscles to be able to hold the bones in a position favorable to greater chest girth and capacity. To bring about the desirable strengthening of these important muscles, you must exercise them in a manner conductive to tension in the right direction. No amount of movements with light resistance will properly develop and strengthen the muscles just referred to. Just as in the development and strengthening of the arms and legs, you know the necessity of vigorous exercise to cause muscular growth, and the same thing applies to the muscles holding the chest in proper position. Special movements should be practiced, which directly effect the muscles across the broad of the back; however, we consider of far greater value, the class of exercises which bring about enforced deep breathing through vigorous use of the largest muscular groups of the body. By practicing leg exercises, which also bring into active play the muscles of the hip region and back, you cause a natural expansion of the lungs and chest; and you won't find it necessary to force deep breathing. This class of exercise movement also serves to strengthen and develop the muscles which hold the body erect, the shoulders back, and the chest out. The spinal column is held in a more natural position; the muscles of the entire back, becoming more firmly knit, tend to hold the shoulder blades down and in, with a resulting uplifting of the rib-box in front.

Constant attention to holding the body erect, and the chin in, will assist you in acquiring a manly chest. Some young fellows have the ambition to possess a large chest, but at the same time they are afraid of exciting undue comment by walking with the chest held out. If you harbor ideas of that sort, and fear being ridiculed for possessing an erect body and prominent chest, your efforts to develop a satisfactory physique will amount to little. Supposing some of the fellows around your town should joke about your "chesty" attitude. Just keep mum for a while until you have gained in strength and development. Then they will respect you for your physical abilities rather than try to make fun of you. There in no use being foolish about the matter. A slovenly fellow who goes about in a slouchy manner at all times will never develop into an imposing example of manly physique. Theories are continually being propounded on the development of the chest. One instructor after another for many years has endeavored to present to the public and entirely new conception of exercises best adapted for enlarging and rounding out the upper part of the torso. After due consideration of the numerous systems, it would seem to us the problem would best be solved selecting outstanding examples of chest development and then determining what general method of exercise was principally followed by the majority. The folly of theorizing will then be apparent, when we many so readily place our finger tips on the photographs of practical examples and say in effect, "the finest models of chest development all followed one similar line of training."

We only need to suggest that all of the world's finest examples of chest size and development are to found among the illustrations in these pages. Should some reader be able to call to mind and isolated case of an individual athlete whose chest is particularly large and pleasing in contour, who has through and evident oversight been omitted from this collection of photographs, we are certain better models will be found among the great number included herein. Practically every professional strong man and outstanding amateur lifter has a splendid chest, and it is obvious we could not hope to include the photo of every "iron man." You may be the sole judge in the matter so far as your personal satisfaction is concerned. Choose any number of chests among the many to be found herein, say twelve, twenty-five, or fifty. Then pick an equal number of pugilists, wrestlers, runners, gymnasts, oarsmen, or the advocates of light dumb bell systems. You will find it impossible to find fifty outstanding examples of superb chest development among any of the separate branches of training suggested, and in fact, you will soon concluded there are not that many first class chests among all other branches of sports and exercise systems, yea, not even twenty-five, nor twelve. Try and see if you can match an equal number of strong men for high quality of chest.

At first, upon seeing my suggestion to practice strenuous leg work to expand and enlarge the chest, some readers may fail to grasp the idea and hastily figure that the reasoning is unsound. It is about the same as teaching the novice that the real force behind a punch must start from the toes, or in snatching the bar bell that the effort is supplied by the back and legs instead of the arms, which merely act as connecting links. That is why purveyors of light dumb bells and other light resistance systems are able to sell to the novice, who fails to understand the real significance of exercise movements.

The most important reason for expanding the chest is to make room for the lungs, so as to be better able to aerate the blood. Now, considering your chest exercises, you must make them conform as much as possible to natural functional movements. The lungs will work most vigorously when the largest muscles groups in the body are called into vigorous action. Muscular action increases the tissue waste and consequent need of oxygen, so the greatest desire for oxygen takes place when the legs and buttocks are working. This brings us down to the essential of prescribing plenty of leg work. This may not develop the muscles on the chest, but is calls for a natural expansion and due to the strengthening of the muscles of progression, which when vigorous have a joint action of effecting the back muscles in such a way as to pull downward on the shoulder blades. A strong back or backbone as some prefer to say it, combined with a strong pair of legs is conductive to an erect carriage. The muscles causing an erect carriage also tend to pull the shoulder blades down and back and hold the chest in an expanded position.

Have you ever noticed how it is necessary to force the inhalations and exhalations in connection with light forms of chest exercise. Really, you can keep waving your arms around for the longest time, almost indefinitely it would mean, without so much as encouraging the breathing. No benefit at all will be derived unless you consciously breath deep. Try to do twenty deep knee bends, even without any weight and see if you can keep from breathing deeply. The reason is due simply to the external lung or chest function we have just mentioned. You either breath deeply or stop moving; one or the other; while in the arm waving variety of exercises the blood isn't stirred up sufficiently to call for a noticeable increase in oxygen requirements. This is simply getting your exercises down to the fundamentals of physiology, and nothing else.

The strong man requires a roomy chest to help produce his strength. The better he is functionally able to aerate his blood, the more he is to produce energy. No worthwhile feat of strength is performed without physiological action; by this we mean the energy must be supplied continuously and without let up or you fail when the feat is only partly completed.

It takes a fast sprinter less than ten seconds to cover the hundred yard dash; that is but a short space of time, comparatively but a moment, but just consider the tremendous amount of energy put forth in the space of that moment. Just think of the way the heart must beat, and blood vessels circulate the blood throughout the body within so short a space of time. The runner becomes extremely winded or short of breath, simply because muscular tissue has been torn down faster than it can be replaced and he must stop because of a shortage of oxygen in his blood. You cannot bring about such a condition by means of any form of arm work within ten seconds' time; nor by chinning, dipping, curling, pressing, or whatever you may chose to do. For one reason, you will find it impossible to produce an equal amount of energy solely with the arms and shoulders in such a short space of time, and the mass of muscle involved does not require the same amount of vascular aeration.

To get back to the thought we had in mind, concerning the strong man and the production of energy. In reality, we mean weight lifter or bar bell user and not the ordinary exhibiting type of showman. Even in such a quick feat as a snatch, a great many physiological functions must take place before the weight is resting at arm's length and yet the complete lift takes but a couple of seconds. Plenty of room for the lungs is important even for a feat taking but that small amount of time. He does not become as winded as the hundred yard man, due to a smaller amount of energy and vascular aeration being called for. Not even in the two arm clean and jerk would he become quite as winded. But have him place a fairly heavy weight on his shoulders and perform as many deep knee bends as possible within ten seconds' time. He will then become more winded than the sprinter covering the century dash. There are other feats of exercises, of course, where the same condition may be brought about. Don't misunderstand me; arm exercises place a demand upon the respiratory function, but not in the same degree. I trust you now understand the reason. Certain arm movements are valuable in bringing about a better chest position; also in developing the muscles covering the chest; however, it is a great waste of time to practice lengthy repetitions with light resistance, when a comparatively few movements with moderate weights will accomplish far more in development, and strength, and furthermore in bringing about a correct position.

What we have said of light methods is also true, to a certain extent, of arm and shoulder exercises performed with heavy weights. Unless supplemented by vigorous leg exertion, the chest expansion will not reach the ultimate limit for the individual. Certain arm and shoulder movements cause for the moment, an uplifting of the rib-box, and if continued over a sufficient length of time, will result in a permanent raising of the thorax. This is dependent upon a proper tensioning of the muscles which hold the thorax in an arched position, chiefly the muscles of the upper back, the latissimus, trapezius, rhomdobius, and minor muscles. Exercises which develop these muscles and the pectorals will bring about an increased size of chest; that is, by thickening the muscles covering the thorax. However, as we have explained, proper chest size and lung space is dependent upon increasing the functional powers, which can most easily be brought about by leg and lower trunk exertions. In conjunction with the increased functional capacity, we develop and strengthen muscles which hold the spine in the natural position; and by placing tension on the muscles which square the shoulders and raise the chest, we bring about a proper erect carriage. Just try to arch or round the back and at the same time expand the chest. You can't to it. Now observe when you expand the chest, the downward pull of the back muscles. In this way, a proper tension of the muscles of the lower back, and the buttocks and leg muscles which work in conjunction with the lower back will hold the chest in proper position.

We would suggest three groups of exercises for chest development. Of chief benefit, vigorous leg work; this may include the deep knee bend, especially with feet flat and sitting down as far as possible; also the straddle lift; the leg press where you lie on the back and press weights on the soles of the feet; and dead lift exercises, both with the knees straight and bent. That would cover the first class.

The next group would include movements for the actual development of the muscles covering the chest and upper back. Pressing weights in various positions while lying on the back will develop the pectorals; likewise straight arm leverage movements in the same position. The latissimus, thombodius, and trapzius muscles, along with minor muscles involved in any action of these muscles, must be strengthened and developed by means of a varied range of movements. The trapezius is not developed in its entirety by should shrugging movements; that sort of work takes care of the upper part of the muscle; it is strongly involved in pulling the shoulders back. The latissimus, which exerts the strongest action in control of the shoulder blades, will be taken care of in the preliminary stages by a movement resembling rowing, in which a bar bell is raised to the chest while the body is bent forward at the hips; the elbows must be held out from the body, later, various overhead movements and lifting bells to the chest will involve the latissimus. Hardly anything this better for this purpose than supporting a bar bell at the shoulder in a Bent Press. All snatches, cleaning and jerking movements bring these muscles into vigorous action, as the shoulder blade is pulled back controlling the arm movements.

The last group of chest benefiting exercises is closely related to the second. Overhead movements which tend to raise the thorax. In the early developmental stages, these overhead movements should be slow and deliberate, and can be performed with both arms together, as well as alternate overhead movements. The uninitiated may be easily fooled in regards to the momentary and lasting benefits of some exercises. I recall a certain incident which might prove enlightening to some of my readers. An instructor was selling course of personal instructions to a thin, flat chested and very much under weight young fellow. To impress him with the assured benefits in chest expansion to be derived, the instructor had an assistant measure the fellow's chest; the then gave him a routine of dumb bell movements to be practiced for ten minutes; at the end of that period the chest was measured again, and the tape showed an increase of two inches. The young lad positively was convinced that his chest had increased in size two inches, within the ten minutes. Whereas, the truth of the matter was, as nothing but such movements as would effect the muscles surrounding the chest were practiced in the ten minutes, the blood was drawn from all parts of the body to this region, and of course, the fellow was a little short of breath and was certain to hold his chest in a better position for a short time; the latter reason probably accounted for more of the temporary increase than the former. The same instructor one time wished to prove he was as tall as another party, unbeknown to the second party. Having thick, wavy hair, he ruffled it up pretty well and set his hat on to of the mass of wavy hair, then the walked alongside the other man to convince the witness of his height. I don't know whether he got away with it in the minds of the others or not.

To show you one of the prominently glaring follies in widely recognized theories of physical culture, permit to quote from one of the masters on the subject of physiology. Fernand Lagrange, M.D., who wrote a very easily understood book, "The Physiology of Bodily Exercise" in the latter part of the past century. To properly substantiate our advice to specialize on vigorous leg exercise, it is necessary to quote from him at considerable length.

"At first sight we should be inclined to believe that the exercises performed with the upper limbs, which are moved by the muscles of the shoulders and trunk, to be most like to raise the ribs; and in fact exercises of the arms are generally regarding as excellent for increasing the respiratory power."

"It would be illusory to set any value on the elevation of ribs or a favorable direction of the costal articulations, on the strength of the inspiratory muscles, etc., if the lungs were not increased in size at the same time as the thoracic cavity is dilated. If the lungs become weakened, the upper ribs fall in, and the best formed chest becomes flat. An empty thoracic cavity is incompatible with raised ribs, and do what we will an empty chest assumes the position of inspiration."

"Thus in the thorax, the volume of the receptacle is determined by the size of the contents. If you wish to develop the chest, do not try to raise the ribs, but try to inflate all the air cells of the lungs; you cannot do it by any mechanical means, and the most clever combinations of muscular movements give but an incomplete result when unaccompanied by the movement - voluntary or instinctive - of forced inspiration."

" - a definite increase in size, persisting during repose, can only be brought about through increased volume of the lungs."

"How is it that the lungs can increase in size through athletic exercise? By a mechanism well known in physiology, by the filling out of certain air cells ordinarily inactive, which only come into play during forced inspiration."

"A definite increase in the volume of the lungs is the consequences of frequent repetition of this supplemental respiration."

"Under the influence of unusual exercise the vesicles increase in size and contain more air. More blood is also supplied to them. Their capillary network becomes richer, and their nutrition more active. Thus in the end they take up more room. It is in this manner that the regular working of a great number of air cells, ordinarily inactive, can rapidly increase the size of the lungs."

"So whatever form the exercise takes, if the arm alone is working, we shall not find that the breathing is much quickened. The exercise may induce local fatigue before the intensity of the respiratory need has increased. It may even happen the work of both arms together does not, after a given time, amount to enough to demand more ample respirations. In general, the exercises which are performed with the legs represent more work than those which are performed with the arms."

"We must not then trust to the exercises of the arms to expand the chest."

"Exercises of strength lead rapidly to an increase in the size of the thorax."

"Mountaineers all have large chests, and the Indians who live of the high plateau of the Cordillera in the Andes, have been noted for the extraordinary size of their chests. This great development in mountaineers is due to two causes which act in the same direction: frequent accent of steep incline, and constant residence at great heights at which the air is rarefied. The climbing of these slopes needs a great quantity of work, which causes increase of the respiratory need: respiration in a rarefied atmosphere obliges a man to take deeper breaths in order to supplement, by the quantity of air breathed, the insufficiency of it vivifying properties."

Again he says: "The lower limbs are then more than capable than the arms of awakening the respiratory need, which is proportions to the expenditures of force."

"Going along a hanging ladder by the hands only, dumb-bell exercise, holding out weights at arm's length, are movements which quickly fatigue the limbs without causing any marked disturbance in the respiratory functions. When we are obliged to stop these exercises, it is not because we are short of breath, but because our muscular force is expended." Then again, "By continual practice in raising weights with the arm outstretched it is possible very greatly to develop the muscles which extend the arm on the shoulder; but the great organic functions, respiration, circulation, etc., will participate very little or not at all in the work."

"In raising a very light dumb bell the arm alone is in action. If the weight is heavier, the muscles of the trunk are associated with those of the arm and shoulder. If finally the weight is nearly as great as the man can lift, we see the extensor muscles of the legs and thighs contract just as vigorously as the others to produce a vigorous upward thrust."

"The exercises which make the legs work actively almost all need the cooperation of thorax." "Hence we draw a practical conclusion," "the exercises of the legs are generally to be preferred to those of the arms when we wish to develop the chest and raise the ribs." It is not strange that through all these years, physical culturists have been practicing arm and shoulder exercises to expand the chest, when great authorities on physiology have pointed out the need of using the large and powerful muscular masses of the body in order to create the demand for greater functional power of the respiratory system? Some bar bell instructors have stressed the importance of exercising the leg and back vigorously, but the majority have failed to recognize the natural laws which must be observed and bring them to the attention of their pupils. The greatest bulk of physical culturists have simply been teaching false doctrines, seemingly in total ignorance of the truth. We believe we are the first among American physical culturists to stress these obvious facts to an appreciable extent. Yet, as you may note, there is nothing original in our contentions. Simply a proper understanding of physiology, which may be studied by any serious minded student of physical training. Physicians should, of course, understand such things, but their minds are taken up with other matters, of greater importance to them than physical training.

Arm and shoulder exercises for the chest, performed with light dumb bells, cables and other light resistance apparatus, can be traced back sixty or more years. No advance have been made in giving instruction along such lines during the entire time; the same arm waving nomenclature has been followed and copied by one instructor after another. At the time Lagrange wrote his notable work, progressive bar bell exercise as we know it had not been introduced, and although he recognized the necessity of exercising the legs, buttocks, and back to properly accelerate the vital functions, he had no suitable system of developing exercises to which he could point. He did recognize strength and lifting exercises, but in later years great advances shave been made in the arrangement of lifting exercises. Even among lifters and advanced bar bell users, you will meet some who do not properly understand the physiological functions and attach too great an importance to light dumb bell drills. One or two of these strong men fail to realize that the chest girth of which they are proud results from the strenuous leg exercise they perform and not from the fancy arm waving. If a man uses an extremely heavy bar bell on his shoulders regularly in performing the deep knee bend, plus championship lifting, it matters little whether or not he practices a routine of light dumb bell exercise, regardless of his personal views on the subject. His opinion would carry little weight in the final analysis, unless the years of deep knee bends with heavy weights and other strenuous leg work had never been practiced.

A little investigation will also prove to you the folly of the light exercise systems sometimes advocated later in life by men who have laid claim to fame on their ability as weight lifters. Sandow was probably the best know example of this. For years Sandow advocated nothing but bar bell training and traveled the world as a strong man, laying claim to being the strongest man of all time. Then later in life when he decided to forego the show life, he established gymnasiums in different parts of England and also conducted a mail order physical culture system.

He also sold the right of using his name on light, spring-grip dumb bells. The truth of the matter is, as you can soon determine, these dumb bells were invented and manufactured long after Sandow had reached his zenith of physical condition. Various other weight lifters and strong have since tried to emulate Sandow by "originating" light systems of their own. These instructors are foolish enough to make claims such as to being the greatest of strong men, and that they can make you just like them, when others who have been connected with physical culture just as long, or longer than they, know what little success they achieved was due to exercising with bar bells. It is such commercial stunts that makes the strong man business so mistrusted. Worst of all, is the individual who will deliberately and knowingly make false statements to confuse the minds of novice physical culturists, for purely commercial reasons. You may read the "authoritative" statements of certain instructors concerning the training methods of really famous strong men. You will, in one breath, be told that "my system was originated by me" and that "so and so followed this same system;" "so and so" referred to being a man whose period of fame antidated the new system by a score or more of years. A most enlightening point in this connection might be mentioned. A thoroughly reputable and long established Continental European magazine recently devoted a large part of one issue to denouncing, criticizing, and pointing out erroneous statements in an American article on a celebrated strong man. The Europeans know something concerning European strong men and their training methods, and the truth is so generally known by the public of Europe, that it would be difficult to get away with false statements over there. Whereas in America, none but those who have been interested in the subject for considerable time have any correct notion concerning the facts of training for strength, development and health.

A phenomena is sometimes observed which seems rather odd. It is noticed that a certain athlete has a normal and expanded chest of practically the same size. It is further observed that the athlete is exceptionally well developed, a sterling example of masculinity. To cite a case: Mr. Otto Arco pays no attention to his physical measurements; however, sometime ago we had occasion to need some such figures, and in quoting some of his measurements Mr. Arco mentioned the odd fact hat no difference could be found between his normal and expanded chest. Anatomically and physiologically, such a condition may be explained.

We must refer you back to our outline of the lung capacity and the normal interchange of air. We called attention to the fact that the lung cells could not be multiplied, and that the only way in which greater lung size could be accomplished was through making a normally greater room for the lungs by enlarging the chest cavity. Now, it is understood that such enlargement can take place to a limited extent only, sooner or later a limit is reached, beyond which the rib box or chest cavity cannot be increased. When the muscles of the upper body have been developed to the fullest extent and the normal chest brought up to the highest standard, the muscles will be holding the chest in a permanently expanded position. The majority of well developed men will notice hardly more than two inches difference between the normal and expanded chest for the same reason, whereas poorly developed individuals may have a chest expansion (from normal to expanded) of something more. Person suffering from pthisis, or consumption, may have a difference of several inches, due to the fact the lungs are in poor condition and in a collapsed state.

You may wonder how the man with the fully expanded normal chest could take care of the demands of extra exertion. The man with such a chest would need to breathe very easily and take care of his oxygen needs for ordinary exertions, while deeper and greater frequency of breathing would supply sufficient oxygenation in time of great exertion. Very few well developed bar ball and strong men would have a noticeable difference between the normal and expanded chest were it not for muscular contraction adding to the size.



Iron Nation

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PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - CHAPTER 9 - ANATOMY MADE EASY: ESSENTIALS THE PHYSICAL CULTURIST SHOULD KNOW - By Mark H. Berry

Anatomy will at once appear to be an important subject in the mind of the serious student, when a thorough physical education is contemplated. The subject is included among the studies of the child in school. Nevertheless, the ignorance of the average citizen, whether or not they have just "finished" their education is appalling. The true physical culturist who has serious hopes of acquiring a healthy body, must know considerable concerning the make-up and actions of the different parts of his body. Theoretically, one should say the better he understands the construction and functions of his entire physical organism, the greater the results he can expect from his exercise practices.

In this day and age, with so much being written on matters pertaining to physical and health culture, there can be no excuse for remaining ignorant of essentials, at least. A knowledge of anatomy is necessary to the student of physical training methods who wishes to properly understand what he is doing; especially is this true if he wishes to arrange and conduct his own training routine. It has been said that the better a man understands anatomy, the farther he will advance in physical development. A great amount of truth is contained in the statement, although one may attain to great heights in physical achievement without knowing anything of anatomy, physiology, or training rules, providing he is under the constant supervision of a coach or instructor. However, the physical culturist who is sufficiently interested to read a book of this nature has ambitions to be able to govern his own training procedure.

It is fine and commendable to be able to memorize the names of all the muscles and bones of the human body. The truth is, though, that the majority of students however great her interest in the subject, will find the memorization of such names quite difficult and uninteresting. There is no use evading the truth; the study of anatomy and physiology is a dry subject. In our treatment of the subjects, an effort is made to vary from the usual presentation of knowledge along this line.

We can appreciate that the subjects of anatomy and physiology make dry reading and rather difficult study for even those who are primarily interested. Personally, we might confess a clear understanding in this respect. When in school, these subjects were most distasteful, and physiology especially used to give us a queer sensation of the "the creeps." This was, of course, some time before we began to show any indication of a life interest in these and allied subjects. Study and reading along such lines became interesting only after there existed some practical reason for knowledge of this sort. We might therefore conclude that it is the manner in which the subjects are presented which give them the appeal which is necessary if the memory is to absorb knowledge in substantial quantities. We shall therefore tackle anatomy and physiology, or as we prefer to refer to both in this chapter as anatomical physiology, from the angle of the physical culturist whose primary interest lies in the use of bar bells as a means of bodily exercise. To begin with, we shall consider the larger and more important muscles and the bones to which they are attached.

Every movement of the arms, legs, the fingers, toes, and head or the body proper, depends upon the movement of the bones underneath which compose the human skeleton. There is no way in which the bones may be moved except by the contraction of the muscles which control the bones. By comparison, we mean drawing together of the muscular fibers which compose the muscular bulk. To simplify the memorizing of important knowledge, we will consider the various muscle groups of the body according to antagonistic muscles pulls on the various levers of the body. In referring to the levers of the body, we may have in mind any of the principal limb divisions or the torso in its mechanical actions of bending and twisting. Any muscular action is dependent upon bones lying underneath for actual structural strength, and upon one or more joint actions. The majority of the principal joints act on the ball and socket principle, while the spinal column can be compared to a flexible shaft.

Every bone can be moved in at least two directions; some bones can be moved in practically every direction. With the contraction of one muscle, or set of muscles, the opposing muscle, or muscles, must be stretched or extended. So we find each muscle is capable of two important movements, contraction and extension. An easy example of this can be cited in the case of the movements of the forearm, which are controlled by the muscles of the upper arm. Everyone, regardless of limitations of their knowledge of the subject, knows the location of one muscle in the human body, whether or not they can call it by name. We refer to the biceps of the upper arm. The function of this muscle is to flex the forearm upon the upper arm; in other words, to move the forearm towards the upper arm. The muscular fibers of the biceps re drawn together, causing the muscle to bulge, in the accomplishment of which the hand moves toward the shoulder. While this is going on the triceps muscle on the back of the upper arm is extended. Now, suppose you straighten the arm out; this is accomplished by the triceps muscles contracting, meanwhile, the biceps is extended. When you throw a ball or stick, or when you strike a blow with the fist, it is the triceps which causes the arm to straighten. Suppose you assume the "show your muscle" attitude. Note the bent upper arm; the biceps muscle has contracted to pull the bones of the forearm into a position of right angles with the upper arm bone. Now observe the triceps muscle on the under side of the upper arm; in this position the triceps muscle on the under side of the upper arm; in this position the triceps is in a relatively weak position. If the upper arm is straightened out from the right angle position, the triceps muscle contracts to pull the forearm bones into straight line with the bones of the upper arm.

To get a better understanding of these muscular pulls, bend your right arm again into the right angle position; place your left hand first on the biceps, then on the triceps, as you alternately work the forearm back and forth. This same principal of muscular pull is involved throughout the body, though in somewhat different form, depending on the bonds and mass involved. When one muscular pull is fully contracted, the opposing or antagonistic muscular pull is in its weakest position for work. Note how the biceps is stretched when the triceps has straightened the arm out to the limit; also the stretched condition of the triceps when the fist is doubled over the shoulder. Curling and "cleaning" movements of every sort bring the biceps into action. All arm extensions, such as pressing, jerking, and snatching, bring the triceps into action. We have just described muscle pull "A;" next is muscle pull "B."

Somewhat identical in muscular action and practically the same leverage principle governs the movements of the thigh or upper leg. The large muscles on the front of the thigh are to be compared to the triceps on the back of the upper arm; that is, by contracting, they straighten the leg; the principal muscles involved are the vastus internus, vastus externus, rectus femorus, and sartorius; refer to Figure A. When the knee is bent, and you wish to straighten the leg, these muscles are contracted to draw the lower leg bones into a straight line with the upper leg bone. The muscles on the under or rear side of the leg, which act in the same manner as the biceps of the arm, are know as the "hamstring" muscles: the biceps femoris (leg biceps), the semitendinosus and the semimembranosus being those principally involved. The feel the muscular pulls with your hands, sit on a chair and alternately bend and extend one leg. Leg extending or straightening movements affect the muscles on the front of the thighs. These movements must be properly variated to reach all of the important muscles; as for instance, the sartorious is affected when you rise from a squatting position with the knees turned out; sitting in the familiar tailor's squat with knees out, rise to the standing position; the knees must be drawn together as well as straightened. Deep knee bends performed with the knees pointed to the front effect the muscles differently than when the knees are turned out. The muscles on the back of the thigh are effected by movements where you straighten up from a forward bending position, especially when the knees are kept locked. Special exercises by be performed, such as leg curls, and pressing weight on the feet, for the benefit of the "hamstring" or thigh biceps muscles.

Muscle Pull "C"

The antagonistic muscle pull of the neck are far more complicated, and as well will give you a more thorough understanding of the muscular action involved in movements of the body. On either side of your neck you will find a long, cord like muscle running from behind the ear to the collar bone at the top of the chest; both muscles nearly meet at this point in front of the neck. Place one hand across the front of your throat, the thumb on one muscle, the fingers on the other; with the other hand on the chin, resist the forward and downward movement of the head. Although various other muscles are involved, these are the chief ones; but they result in this movement of the head only when working in unison: if one of these muscles, known as the sterno-cleido-mastoid, works alone, it results in a downward twisting movement; the muscles on the right side tends to pull the ear down towards the chest, the reverse movement being accomplished by the muscle on the left side. The forward movement of the head is also assisted by the rectus anticus major and rectus anticus minor muscles, which are t he direct antagonists of the muscles on the back of the neck.

The backward movement of the head is caused by the flexion of the splenius and trapezius muscles. As a small amount of experimenting will prove to you, it is possible to move the head in practically any direction; muscular contractions are responsible for each movement. For movements benefiting the neck muscles we would refer you to the chapter on neck exercise. You could practice the movements suggested above, but the neck is best benefited by working it in conjunction with the truck, shoulders, arms and legs.

Next, let us consider the muscles governing the forward and backward movements of the body proper, or as it is sometimes called, the torso. The principal muscles pulls are exerted by the abdominal and lower back muscles; we will call this, muscle pull "D." The spine, being very flexible, permits of movement in almost any direction; providing the muscles have been trained to the proper degree of suppleness. The average person is quite liable to cause a painful strain by bending or twisting around, whereas the trained athlete enjoys perfect freedom of movement in any direction.

A forward bending of the body is brought about in two ways. It is generally supposed that the rectus abdominus, external and internal obliques and associated muscles of the abdomen, known as the abdominal muscles, pull the body forward as in the familiar abdominal exercises of sitting up with the feet held immovable. However, this action is brought about chiefly by the psoas and illiacus muscles which are seated deep in the abdomen in the pelvis region. That is, if the body is held stiff and moved toward the thighs, or if the thighs are moved towards the body. The action of the abdominal group is the compression of the abdomen, or doubling up of the body. However, these muscles also assist in the performance of the sit up, as we endeavor to fold the body up as we flex the body upon the thighs. You may experiment and you will find that it is extremely difficult to perform any form of sitting up exercise if the body is held in an exaggerated erect position, when the work is thrown entirely on the psoas and illacus group; or rather when the body is doubled up in conjunction with the sit up, there is less leverage for the muscles to overcome. The muscle pull involved in the backward bending of the body is likewise complicated, it being possible for the backward bending to be accomplished in varying degrees.

The chief muscle is the erector spinae, running the entire way along the spine, the largest bulk being in the region known as "the small of the back." The buttocks, or hip muscles also have considerable to do in pulling the body backwards and holding it erect. The latissimus muscles pull the shoulders down and back, thus assisting in the backward inclination of the body. Many other minor muscles assist in one way or another, but your knowledge needs only to include the ones we have mentioned. As you must readily understand, the actions of the back and abdominal muscles serve to suggest the most appropriate exercises. Either a sidewise bending or a twisting of the body is brought about by the gluteus and sartorious muscles, and referred to on the chart, as muscle pull "J."

The chest is held in a high arched position by the pull of the back muscles just mentioned, as well as by the combined action of the neck muscles and the trapezius muscles. The trapezius, the rhombodeus major and rhombodeus minor muscles all assist the latissimus in pulling the shoulders backward. The pectoral muscles, major and minor, tend to pull the shoulders forward and constrict the chest. The trapezius muscles move the shoulders upwards, assisted to some extent by the various muscles of the neck. A downward movement of the shoulders will involve the latissimus to some extent, whether towards the front or back; a downward movement towards the front also involves the pectorals, but these latter muscles are not included if the pull is towards the back. The pectorals are developed by forward movements of the arms; the trapezius by upward movement of the shoulders, also by downward and backward shoulder movements which likewise bring into action the latissimus and less important muscles.

The upper arm bones are controlled by important muscles of the shoulder, upper back, and upper chest. Suppose you hold your arm out to the side; draw it forward and the pectoral muscles contract to do the work; draw the arm back and the latissimus muscle contracts. The pectoral muscles are the breast muscles of the upper chest; the latissimus muscles are situated on the broad of the back and form a big bulge just under the arms. Hold your hand on your breast or pectoral muscle and then move your arm back and forth. You will then be able to feel the extension and contraction of the pectorals. Place your left hand point of your right shoulder. Now raise the right arm overhead. As you do so, you can feel the movements of the deltoid muscle which covers the shoulder point. Hold your right arm straight out to the side and move it about in various directions while holding the left hand on the deltoid. You will note that is has the power of contracting in three different directions to move the arm, either forward, backward, directly overhead, or in a combination of forward and upward, or backward and upward. Overhead arm exercises are most beneficial.

These arm and shoulder movements are referred to as muscle pulls "E," "F," and "G."

Muscle Pull "H"

The principal movements of the calf in which you will be interested will be flexing and extensing of the foot upon the lower leg. The extension of the foot or raising of the heel is brought about chiefly by the pull exerted by the gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris muscles, which make up the bulk of the muscular mass on the back of the calf. The muscles on the front of the calf are chiefly responsible for flexing the foot upon the lower leg or raising the toes towards the knee. You may have heard the muscles in t his region referred to as the "shin" muscles; the particular muscle referred to is the tibialis anterior which is assisted by the extenor digitorum longus, the extensor hallucis longus, and the peronaeus tertius. The calf works chiefly when the weight of the body must be supported wholly or partly on the toes. However, as described in the proper chapter, various other movements are practically as beneficial.

Muscle Pull "T"

Place your right forearm on the table in front of you, fist clenched thumb uppermost. Move the clenched fist from side to side, and observe the action of the forearm muscles. The left hand may be placed on the right forearm to feel the muscular action. When the fist is moved inwards or flexed on the forearm, the muscles in action are, flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longus, the flexor carpi ulnaris, and the larger of the flexors of the thumb and fingers. When the wrist is extended, or the fist turned back, the muscles in action are, the extensor carpi longus, extensor carpi brevis, and the extensor carpi ulnaris.

Then try moving the fist up and down while keeping the thumb uppermost; very little freedom of action is possible, as you will find, though the downward action is far more free and more powerful, due to the form of the wrist joint, just as the movement of the flexion is more powerful than that of the extension. The downward motion is controlled by the flexor carpi ulnaris and the extensor carpi ulnaris;m the upward motion by the flexor carpi radials and extensors of wrist and thumb. Now, if you will turn the palm side of the hand downward while keeping the elbow in the same relative position, this action is known as pronation of the forearm, and the muscles involved are, pronator teres, pronator quadratus, flexor carpi radials and the bachioradialis.

If you next the palm down all the way around till it is up and over as far as possible you perform the complete movement of supination, involving the supinator muscle, the biceps of the upper arm, the brachioradialis, on the bulgy outside part of the forearm, has a part to play in both movements. This muscle plays the dual role of both supinator and pronator; its duty being to bring the hand into the midway position.

Curling movements with the palm turned up, effect the muscles which pull the fist over toward the front of the forearm, or the supinators. All exercises and lifts involving extension of the arm bring into play the muscles which draw the fist toward the back of the forearm. Reverse curling effects the muscles controlling pronation of the forearm. Holding a kettle bell in the hand with the palm turned to the front while making an overhead press effects the muscles which pull the wrist down as in adduction. All of these exercises combine forearm actin with biceps and triceps action. You may practice exercises for the forearm muscles alone by imitating the first and third motions; the second is of too little consequence to both with in an exercise. If you practice the forearm exercises outlined in another chapter, in addition to the general practice of all around exercises outlined herein, you will need nothing further for the forearms. The gripping incidental to holding and handling bar bells and heavy dumb bells and kettle bells will bring about a powerful development of the muscles in the forearm controlling the clenching of the fingers.

One may make a most careful study of every small muscle in the body, with the intention of striving for a perfect development of he entire muscular system. Such enthusiasm would certainly be commendable, but is entirely unnecessary if proper training methods are followed for the development of the larger and more important muscles and muscle groups. If you were to endeavor to strengthen and develop the minor muscles separately and individually, you would find it practically an impossibility. These minor muscles, for the most part, act as accessories to the major muscles, carrying on essential duties of assisting when the strain is most severe upon the larger muscles. It is undoubtedly a statement of fact, if we say the average person, who is unaccustomed to physical exertion exists with almost a total absence of most of the minor muscles. It stands to reason if the larger muscles are weak, flabby and undeveloped and still the person manages to hold together and "get about" that the smaller and weaker muscles of the human anatomy are practically nonexistent. These minor muscles, of which there are hundreds throughout the body, reach a high degree of strength and development, only where the individual is accustomed to extremely strenuous exertion.

I presume it is possible for many of the minor muscles to deteriorate entirely on a soft, sedentary worker of thirty or older. There is also another possibility in connection with the many small muscles of the body. I refer to the probability of being unable to develop many of the smaller muscles, if the individual has been accustomed to any form of physical activity up to the age of thirty and beyond. This is, of course, only an extreme possibility in rare instances, where the individual has not taken part in athletics or any form of hard work after the beginning of adolescence. In reading works on anatomy, we will note statements in reference to certain minor muscles that they are sometimes lacking entirely. This fact is no doubt due to the reasons given in the foregoing explanation. The only sensible and practical way to reach these muscles and make certain of developing them to the full extent is by giving all of the large muscle groups an amount of work which requires the limit of contractile powers. If every part of your body is exercised along the lines recommended in this volume, you may fell sure of reaching the most remote muscles.



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PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - CHAPTER 8 - CIRCULATION: THE FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD CIRCULATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO PHYSICAL CULTURISTS - By Mark H. Berry

We have been discussing the function of circulation as related to respiration and the proper nutrition of the muscles; therefore, we might profit by paying a little direct attention to the circulation of the blood and the organs which control it. The blood is contained in a closed set of branched tubes, which it completely fills, and which are commonly referred to as blood vessels; the blood is carried away from the heart through the arteries and distributed to all parts of the body. The veins carry the blood back to the heart from all parts of the body. The capillaries connect the arteries and veins throughout the body, and it is really in the capillaries that the work of the bloodstream is carried on. These small vessels are hair-like and form a network. A certain amount of force of pressure is necessary to carry the blood through the vessels. This force or pressure originates in the heart, but something else must be accounted for when explaining the complete working of the force or pressure.

The pressure thus exerted is known as blood pressure. The arterial blood pressure is much stronger than the pressure in the veins, known as venous pressure. The arterial pressure is fluctuating, varying from the strongest pressure in the larger arteries in a slightly weaker pressure in the small arteries. The venous pressure on the other hand, is strongest in the smaller veins, as the flow of blood is from the small veins to the larger veins; the venous pressure is low and relatively even. The rapidity of the blood flow is governed by the needs of the body.

Under ordinary circumstances, the general circulation is not affected. The blood supply to one organ or muscles, or to several organs or muscles may be increased without need of a greater flow throughout the entire system. The blood vessels in one part of the body may contract to counterbalance a dilation in another part of the body. However, when the increased demand is general throughout the system, then owing to the limited quantity of blood in the body, the rate of circulation must be increased to furnish the necessary addition. During minor exertions, the blood pressure is balanced, but this comparison cannot take care of all emergencies; therefore, a greater flow of blood means a greater blood pressure.

The arterial pulse is caused essentially by the variations of pressure within the artery, produced by the intermittent expulsion of blood from the heart; the systolic pressure is the highest point on this wave of arterial pressure; diastolic pressure the lowest point; the difference between the two, is called the pulse pressure. By certain indirect methods, it is possible to determine these pressures with a fair degree of accuracy. The factors effecting the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures are: an increase in the amount of blood delivered at each beat from the heart into the aorta would tend to increase the difference; likewise a rapid emptying of the blood vessels would tend to increase this difference, whether or not the extra blood flowed through the capillaries into the veins, or regurgitated into the heart owing to a diseased condition of the heart.

The amount of blood pumped into the arteries and the amount which escapes from them in both directions must be equal, otherwise large amounts of blood would accumulate in, or disappear from the arteries. The rigidity of the arterial walls also exerts an influence on the arterial pressure. Were the arteries absolutely rigid tubes, the heart would be compelled to move the whole column of blood with each beat, while between the beats the flow of blood would stop. A high systolic pressure in the arteries and practically no diastolic pressure would then result; while the pulse pressure would be exceedingly high.

Arteriosclerosis sufferers frequently show high pulse pressures. As described above, slightest changes in the rigidity of the arteries will affect the pulse pressure, though to a less marked degree. The ventricles force a certain amount of blood into already full arteries; due to their flexibility, the arteries extend to accommodate this extra quantity; as long as the heart is contracting, the arteries extend, but as soon as the heart contraction is over the contractile powers of the arteries cause them to send blood into the capillaries rapidly enough to be at their normal size for the next heart contraction.

Arteriosclerosis is a condition wherein the arteries become stiff and rigid, and less adapted for the unceasing work they are called upon to perform; this condition is the result of either advancing age or disease. One suffering this condition runs a big chance by engaging in violent physical exertion; death is often brought about during times of great excitement or unaccustomed exertion, by the rupture of a tiny blood vessel in the brain. This is known as apoplexy, and is brought about by the blood vessels being incapable of handling the increased pressure; being stiff and hardened throughout the system, something has to give, so a small and weak part of the vascular system breaks to permit the necessary expansion. The arteries of the normal person being elastic, take care of the increased pressure demands by expansion, as we have explained.

Arterial pressure increases with age, as the arteries are less elastic. Likewise conditions of health may effect the normal muscular tone of the arteries and heart, if the heart loses its force or the arteries become too flabby the blood pressure is low, while the blood pressure is high, if the arteries are hardened or the heart over-stimulated.

The work of the heart may be made more difficult by increased peripheral existence, that is, greater contraction or constriction of the smaller arteries, necessitating increased work to send the blood circulating throughout the body. A wonderful power of adapting itself to the amount of work required of it, whether we are at rest, or exerting ourselves to the maximum, is possessed by the heart, which has been called the best motor know to man. Without hesitation or experiment, this organ instantly adapts itself to any demands made upon it. As soon as there is a demand the heart accomplishes it, though its capabilities are greatly increased by training; by reason of becoming accustomed to much exertion the muscular tissue on the heart is thickened giving it greater power to work, and making a rapid beat more easily sustained.

The factors controlling the blood pressure in the larger arteries are two in number-- the amount of blood pumped into the arterial system by the heart, and the resistance offered to the escape of blood from the system through the smaller arteries and capillaries. The elasticity of the vessels walls and the total quantity of blood in the body are of minor importance. These various factors may interact upon one another in a most complicated manner. Should the arterial pressure be increased from any cause, the vagus nerve is stimulated, with the result that the heart is slowed and less blood is delivered into the aorta; the volume of blood is rapidly changed, the blood vessels change their caliber, so that within certain limits the blood pressure is not altered.

Someone with a mechanical and mathematical turn of mind has figured it out that the arteries in the human body have strength enough to withstand the steam from a locomotive boiler, having a pressure of fifteen times the normal atmospheric pressure. Also that a barrel of blood passes through the vascular system in one hour; and in one day, two railroad tank cars could be filled with the amount of blood passing through the vascular system. The heart is indeed a wonderful pump. The heart of a man weighs, on the average, approximately ten to twelve ounces and contains four distinct cavities. The two upper cavities are known as the right and left auricle, and the lower two as the right and left ventricle, the latter being the most capacious by about 30%. The blood passes from the venae cavae into the right auricle and from there into the right ventricle. The blood then passes into the lungs and back into the heart through the left auricle, to the left ventricle, and out into the general circulation by way of the arteries, then through the capillaries, thence on through the veins and back again to the heart. It has been estimated authoritatively that little more than two ounces of blood is contained in the separate cavities at any one time, although the actual capacity of each of the cavities is at least twice as great. The complete process of circulation takes a little over one half of a minute.

The heart is approximately the size of your clenched fist, yet it carries on a tremendous amount of work. The entire volume of blood in the body passes through the heart once in about every half minute, an amount of something less than four grams in the average man. It has been established on reliable authority that the blood volume of man amount to, on the average, around 4.9%, or approximately one twentieth of the bodyweight. The heart beats well over one hundred thousand times daily or something like fifty million times in the course of a year.

Generally, the supposition is that the heart works continuously without interruption, still although true that the heart muscles receive no considerable rest, the heart cycle works in such a way that the various muscles involved each in turn pause for a short time. First both auricles contract, then both ventricles contract, following which there is a pause. The same order taking place again. This complete order is know as the cardiac cycle or heart beat. The average complete heart beat lasts 8/10 of a second, and is divided in this manner: the contraction of the auricles lasts 1/10 of a second, the contraction of the ventricle 3/10 of a second, the remaining 4/10 of a second being taken up the pause or rest. Each heart muscle contraction, both auricular and ventricular is known as the systole, while the period of relaxation is known as the diastole, either auricular or ventricular. The heart beat frequently varies, due to certain conditions, posture, sex, age, state of health and exertion. The heart beat is more rapid in females. The average normal male, sitting at ease, has a heart beat of 72; in females it varies to 8 or 10 beats more. Infants have a heart beat of well over 100. A material increase in the heart beat will be noticed as the result of exercise and digestion, or a fall in blood pressure; a rise in blood pressure will cause a diminishing of the beat.

The blood has several functions; removing carbon dioxide from the cells and carrying oxygen from the lungs to the cells; removing waste material from the cells, it also carries nutritive properties from the digestive organs to the cells; distributes internal secretions to various parts of the body; equalizing the chemical properties of the body. If the blood becomes heated in one part of the body it is cooled in another, thus the blood maintains an average body temperature. Furthermore, the blood is able to resist to a certain extent, due to the nature of its composition, bacteria and germs that might enter the body.

Certain chemical changes are associated with the activities of the living cells throughout the body; and interchange of food and waste material constantly taking place. Metabolism is the term by which the process of replacing worn out tissues with new material is known; while the process of assimilating food is know by the term nutrition. A thorough discussion of the processes ought properly to deal with each organ individually. However, we will consider the matter, generally as it will interest the student of physical training who wishes to understand by what mean or processes new muscle is built and strength is developed.

It is necessary to supply the body with certain elements, in order to properly maintain it. These elements are generally supposed to consist of water, mineral salts, and organic bodies, (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats); it is not, however, altogether certain that this enumeration fully expresses the needs of the body. In experiments upon animals, failures to maintain them have been noted upon a diet containing these elements in proper proportion. Our knowledge of the exact needs of the body is limited, as we have no direct means of establishing the exact elements appropriated by the body and the manner in which it is accomplished. It is from our examination of the food taken into the body, and a close check on the various waste products eliminated that we derive our knowledge of the nutritive needs. The food we eat is utilized partly to repair the tissue waste, and partly to furnish bodily heat and muscular energy. It is practically immaterial, so far as the body heat and muscular energy is concerned, whether the energy is provided by carbohydrates, fats, or proteins; the essential point is that the quantity of food into energy is much the same way as though the same foods were burned outside the body, with the same amount of waste products left. Heat, mechanical and chemical work are all produced therefrom. The food is prepared by the mouth and stomach, passes into the small intestine where the greater amount of assimilation takes place. The nourishing elements are absorbed by the blood and carried to the venae cavae and thence to the right auricle of the heart. The various internal organs and glands all have a part to play in bringing about the proper chemical mixture of the blood. The nutritive elements are carried on through the vascular system and picked up by the cells as needed. A healthy digestion and assimilation of food is dependent upon vigorous circulatory and respiratory functions.

By simply eating the proper foods you cannot expect to maintain a healthy condition of life; nor by breathing alone. In addition, one must lead an active life, strenuous physical exertion being most important to properly and thoroughly stimulate the circulation. I trust you thus appreciate the necessity of vigorous circulation to carry blood through each of the essential functions of nutrition. As we have explained elsewhere, the proper aeration of the blood demands sufficient oxygen, thus encouraging deep breathing. As the oxygen demand takes place in the tissues throughout the body, the mere act of breathing deeply without strenuous exertion accomplishes nothing. You must exercise vigorously, using the entire body to create a want of oxygen; the heart beat is quickened and the breathing becomes deeper. The result is a better nourished condition of the entire body. We can also understand the result of such activities upon the brain. A sluggish., impoverished stagnant blood stream cannot maintain health in any part of the body, while a vigorous circulation of pure blood (which has been thoroughly oxygenized) results in a better nourishment of the brain as well as of the entire body.

Leading authorities in physiology have proven the existence of hunger or the demand for food to be seated in the cells throughout the body, rather than in the stomach. Cutting off the food supply of animals, so that food could not enter the system, regardless of how much was eaten, the hunger continued. The seat of oxygen demand has been established in a like manner by experiments on animals, whereby the want of oxygen has been definitely proven to lie in the tissues; by preventing the blood from flowing from the heart; the animal would breathe violently in an attempt to aerate his blood, showing that the mere presence of oxygen in the lungs was of no value so far as the need of oxygen in the system was concerned. Convulsive efforts at breathing have also been observed after profuse hemorrhage, showing the demand for oxygen on the part of the tissues caused violent breathing, which could not be satisfied due to the shortage of blood to carry oxygen throughout the system.

As to proving the real sense of hunger to be located in the system rather than in the stomach, it has been observed in the case of persons as well as animals with serious injury to the small intestines so as to make impossible the proper passage of food, that regardless of the quantity of food eaten the hunger would be persistent. Of course, a local satisfaction would take place immediately upon filling the stomach, which would soon pass when the systemic requirements were not met. On the other hand, a well nourished person in good health and with an abundance of reserve nourishment in the blood may abstain from food for a considerable time without becoming unduly hungry.

After duly considering all of the foregoing concerning the nutrition of the body - respiration, circulation, and the digestive and assimilative processes, we can better understand the reason for the value of bar bell exercise and strenuous lifting. The demand for vigorous internal functions is stimulated, and by resting for long periods between the periods of exertion, we succeed in better nourishing the body.

The muscles are capable of storing up a chemical substance, glycogen, which is formed by the liver. This chemical substance accumulation is increased by regular physical exercise, and when the muscular tissue cells increase in size and strength, it is undoubtedly through the accumulation of this chemical substance, glycogen.

The tissues do not multiply, nor do the cells, but they do increase in size in the manner just described. It must be understood that these accumulations are separately every minute. This energy storage is consumed through oxygenation. Muscular size is increased in another, though more indirect way.

There is an important physiological bearing on the acceleration of the venous circulation by contraction of muscles, on the nutrition. It is apparently necessary that the supply of blood should be increased in a muscle, in proportion to and during its activity; for at that time its destructive assimilation is undoubtedly augmented, and there is an increased demand on the blood to supply the waste. It is apparently a provision of nature that the activity of a muscle facilitating the passage of blood in its veins, and consequently its flow from the capillaries, induces an increased supply of the nutrient fluid. As the development of tissues is generally in proportion to their vascularity, this may account for the increase in the development of muscle, which is the invariable result of exercise.



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PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - CHAPTER 7 - RESPIRATION: THE PROPER WAY TO BREATHE - By Mark H. Berry

THE MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION. THIS CHAPTER CONTAINS THE KEY NOTE TO HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

The physical culturist has been taught to look upon the act of respiration, or breathing, in the wrong light. Not that we mean too great an importance has been attached to it, but instead of being taught to understand the true connection of respiration in relation to other functions, the physical culturist has been led to think of deep breathing as a direct means of invigorating and purifying the body. We intend to show you, and at the same time to prove, that quantity of air in the lungs which is continually being inhaled and exhaled does not constitute the act of respiration. Instead of taking place in the lungs, the essential processes of respiration take place in all the tissues and organs of the body. The act of breathing is merely one of the outer doors of the entire chain of acts comprising the function of nutrition. To make a comparison for the purpose of better understanding, we might say the respiratory act has a part to play in like manner to the work of the stomach. We know that the stomach prepares the food for complete digestion and assimilation in other organs, and though the gastric function as performed by the stomach is essential it is but one of the first steps in the nutritive function of the body.

In so far as the physical culturist is concerned, respiration must be considered essentially as a part of the complete function of nutrition. In other words, as one of the important parts of the business of furnishing the body with healthy material to take place of the old material broken down every second the individual is alive. The tissues must be relieved of carbonic acid and supplied with oxygen if life is to continue. The rapidity of this change is in proportion to the nutritive activity of the individual and the rapidity of the circulation of blood. The constant breaking down of the cells of the body forms carbonic acid. This breaking down of the cells is multiplied by muscular exertion, so that the more strenuous the exertion, the greater the quantity of carbonic acid formed, which must be expelled by the lungs.

Likewise the greater the quantity of oxygen which must be absorbed into the blood to carry on the work of repair to the body. The lung capacity varies with the sexes, the age, the health and physical condition, the stature and various other influences. There is a certain quantity of air present in the lungs after even the most forced expiration; that is know as Residual air, and cannot be expelled. Although the amount of Residual air varies with individuals, authorities have place the average quantity at 100 cubic inches, although it may vary from as low as 40 to well over 200.

In the ordinary act of respiration, a comparatively small volume of air is taken into the lungs with inspiration and expelled by the succeeding expiration. The Residual air remains in the lungs as a physical necessity to preserve them from collapse, which would result from the force of outside air, if the lungs were completely emptied. There is, therefore, no reason for considering the Residual air when computing the breathing capacity of the individual. In order to arrive at the figures which will denote the breathing capacity we must compute the air which can be inhaled and exhaled. Such figures, besides offering useful points of information, are of value here to give you a thorough understanding of the true value of ordinary breathing, which can be expelled but is only expelled by means of forced expiration. This is known as Reserve air, and which we will say for the purpose of illustration equals the quantity of the Residual air, or 100 cubic inches.

The amount of air changed during ordinary breathing amounts to anywhere from seven cubic inches in complete repose up to 75 or more cubic inches during excitement. On the average, this Tidal, or ordinary breathing air amounts to about twenty cubic inches. Then, when a direct effort is made to increase the volume of air in the lungs, thus when you make a violent or intense muscular effort, when you sing, blow, yawn, or sneeze, you temporarily arrest the act of breathing and make a very deep inspiration. The air thus taken into the lungs is know as Complemental air. The amount of Complemental air would, of course, vary with the degree of effort, but for the purpose of quoting figures we will say 100 cubic inches, or slightly more, may be taken into the lungs. Adding up the above figures, which we will suppose pertain a man of average height, we find during the act of ordinary breathing he has around 200 cubic inches of air in the lungs after an ordinary exhalation, and from 10 to 50 or more cubic inches additional after an ordinary inhalation.

The Extreme Breathing Capacity of the man is figured by adding the Reserve, Tidal, and Complemental airs, and not computing the Residual air, which cannot be changed. This would give us a figure of 220 or more cubic inches of air which could be taken into the lungs or expelled at the will of the individual. Bringing these figures down to something easier to understand, the amount of air which can be changed in the lungs would fill two boxes of about 4 3/4 inches square. Counting the Residual air in the total, the amount of air in the lungs would fill two boxes of about 5 1/2 inches square. Now note that the amount of air changed during ordinary breathing would fill two boxes as small as two or three inches square. The Vital capacity or Extreme Breathing capacity varies, not according to bodyweight or the bulk of the individual, but according to his height. For every inch in height between five and six feet, add eight cubic inches. Age also causes a variation, the capacity increasing up to the age of thirty and then gradually decreasing. Obesity also cause the Vital Capacity to diminish.

It must be understood that figures of this nature may vary greatly with individuals, but they give us some basis by which we may come to an intelligent understanding on the subject. A certain type of physical culturist will tell you to breathe deeply at all times, or the air will not reach the innermost cells of the lungs; and that shallow breathing causes disease by allowing the more remote lung cells to become inactive for want of air. However, physiology does not substantiate this idea, as the following explanation will prove--there is a certain physical fact, know as the law of diffusion of gases. When two gases or mixture of gases are brought in contact with each other, they quickly mingle or diffuse, until the whole mass has a uniform density and composition. This takes place even between light and heavy gases in opposition to the law of gravity. Due to this fact, the mixture of air in the lungs is at all times quite uniform, and the interchange of fresh air in the upper portion of the respiratory apparatus and the more impure air of the deeper parts is going on constantly. Still another point must be considered, which is that of the atmospheric air, being lighter than the carbonic acid saturated air of the lungs, penetrates to the deep portion of the lungs with greater rapidity than the latter ascends to the trachea.

An intelligent study of the respiratory act therefore reveals that instead of the gaseous contents of the air being completely changed with each inspiration, there is no such intermittent character connected with the oxygenation of the blood, such as attends the mechanical process of respiration. It is in the pulmonary vesicles that the interchange of gases with the blood takes place, and as the diffusion of gases is constantly going on, the air therein maintains quite a uniform composition.

Among physical culturists, arguments have been carried on, pro and con, concerning the correct method of breathing. Permit me to give a thorough explanation of my opinion, the same being the conclusion of considerable study on the matter. Some people advocate diaphramatic control, others argue about the part the abdomen or the chest should play in the act of breathing. We believe any system of thoroughly deep breathing can be correct, providing certain rules of healthful activity are observed.

Proper oxygenation of the blood is the prime essential. Other than that, the mere mechanical act resolves itself into accustoming oneself to certain muscular acts. If one exercises vigorously, the respiratory act is carried on unconsciously, but thoroughly. It is only those who attempt deep breathing without the proper degree of activity who must worry about the manner of breathing. It is essentially a false doctrine to teach that the respiratory function can be improved by deep breathing, if unaccompanied by the physical exertion.

The purpose of respiration or the act of breathing, is to supply the system with oxygen and relieve it of carbonic acid; the arterial blood is charged with oxygen, which it carries to all parts of the body, then after passing through the capillaries it becomes venous blood, loaded with carbonic acid, which it carries to the lungs to be expelled. Thus the lungs change the venous blood to arterial blood.

The chief physiological reason for a chest of great size is so that the individual will be capable of greater physical exertion; muscular activity causes a greater amount of carbonic acid to be expelled from the lungs, which means that a greater amount of oxygen must be supplied in order to properly purify the blood. Through training, we may accustom the respiratory function to furnishing an increased supply of oxygen, cause the chest to enlarge, and stimulate the vital forces to increased activity, thus promoting better health.

Three different types of respiration, or ways of breathing, may be recognized; The abdominal, the inferior costal, and the superior costal.

In the abdominal type, the action of the diaphram and consequent movements of the abdomen are most prominent. In the inferior costal type, the action of the muscles which expand the lower part of the thorax, from the seventh rib down, is most prominent. In the superior costal type, the action of the muscles which expand the thorax above the seventh rib and which elevate the entire chest is most prominent. It is true that all these muscles are used to some extent in every normal act of respiration; nevertheless, the action and control of each of these types is distinct. The abdominal type is most marked in children under the age of three. During childhood, the two sexes begin to show entirely different types of respiration. In the male, the abdominal, conjoined with the inferior costal type is predominant; in the female, the superior costal type predominates, while the inferior costal type is insignificant.

Without some effort to control the breathing in a different manner, the male continues to breathe mainly by the action of the diaphram and the lower part of the chest; but in the female the action is almost entirely confined to the upper part of the chest. It can be plainly seen that the abdomen will be greatly involved in normal breathing of the male.

A physiological reason can be given for the female breathing in this manner. It is a provision by nature to relieve the woman of abdominal pressure during the period of gestation.

Now to discuss the various muscles involved in breathing, or, to be specific, we will treat on those which control the movements of the chest cavity. Three distinct groups of muscles are involved in inspiration: those used in ordinary respiration, which have the strongest action; those which act as auxiliaries to the breathing; and the extraordinary auxiliaries, which act as muscles of inspiration only when the breathing is extremely deep or difficult: in the first group are the diaphram, the intercostals, the levatores costarum, the scaleni muscles; in the second group are the serratus posticus and trapezius, the pectrorals, and the serratus magnus.

In the male, in ordinary breathing, the most active muscles are the diaphram, intercostals, and the levatores costarum. In the female, breathing with the upper chest control, the scaleni muscles are brought into action mostly.

To consider the muscles controlling expiration: During the ordinary act of breathing, the predominating muscles are the internal intercostals, the infra-costals, and the triangularis sterni. During extremely deep breathing, other muscles must assist, as the external and internal obliques, the sacrolumbalis, and the transversalis.

The ribs are somewhat twisted upon themselves, and have a general direction forward and downwards; the first rib is nearly horizontal, but each succeeding rib is more oblique. It may be stated in general terms that inspiration is effected by descent of the diaphram and elevation of the ribs; and expiration by elevation of the diaphram and descent of the ribs. The ribs are raised by the action of the scaleni muscles and the intercostal muscles. The three scalene muscles are attached to the cervical vertebrae and the first and second ribs. The intercostals have two functions: the external intercostals raise the ribs and the internal intercostals lower the ribs: the former run forward and downwards from the back part of one rib to the front part of the next below; the latter run backwards and downwards from the front of one rib to the back of the next rib below.

The diaphram is by far the largest and most powerful of the muscles involved in respiration, so it seems reasonable that the act of breathing should be carried on principally through the action of that particular muscle. As the diaphram moves downward during inspiration, it is evident that the abdominal organs will be involved in the movement, so we must make room for this action by extending the abdomen.

Elsewhere, we go to considerable length to show the capacity of the lungs and the distribution of each type of air contained in the lungs. We wish to call attention to the fact that the quantity of air in the lungs, which is being continually inhaled and exhaled, does not constitute the act of respiration. To the contrary, the essential processes of respiration take place in all the tissues and organs of the body, and not in the lungs. Respiration is essentially part of the function of nutrition. The continuance of life is dependent upon the tissues being relieved of carbonic acid and supplied with oxygen. The rapidity of this change depends upon and is in proportion to the nutritive activity of the individual and the rapidity of the blood circulation. Carbonic acid is formed by the breaking down of the cells of the body, the same being multiplied by muscular exertion. Therefore, the more strenuous the exertion, the greater the quantity of carbonic acid which is formed and must be expelled by the lungs. Moreover, the greater the quantity of oxygen which must be absorbed into the blood to carry on the work of repair to the body.

The lungs are capable of holding a certain amount of air, the same varying with stature, age, health, physical condition and other influences, besides the sex of the individual. As we show elsewhere, the aeration of the blood has none of the intermittent character which attends the mechanical process of respiration.

The interchange of oxygen and carbonic acid is continuous. Ordinary breathing is carried on with more or less rhythm, from five to eight ordinary respirations being followed by one more deep and profound than the rest. This extra deep breath effects a more even change of the air in the lungs. This does not mean that the shallow chested individual oxygenizes his blood as well as the one who has a normally full chest. It is also obvious that we must breathe pure fresh air at all times if a normal condition of health is to be maintained. The shallow chested individual would not have sufficient room for his lungs to expand sufficiently to properly aerate his blood.

Certain facts relating to the respiratory act have been determined by scientific physiologists. From lengthy tests and experiments on thousands of subjects, it has been found that the extreme breathing capacity remains constant in an individual during health; as long as the individual remains the same physically, it is impossible to change the breathing capacity by practice or habit. The breathing capacity will be decreased by certain diseases, notably consumption: likewise with advancing age; and will also be decreased if the person becomes fat; but the capacity will remain the same as long as the physical proportions and state of health remain the same. Therefore, it is necessary to get at the thing in another way; causing the circulation and nutrition to become more active, thereby demanding a greater amount of oxygen, which is best accomplished by developing the entire muscular system and accustoming the physical organism to greater activity; the circulation and nutrition will both be stimulated to increased action. And, as we explain at another place, vigorous leg work creates the greatest demand for increased activity of the respiratory function.

Before concluding, we will repeat, you can accustom yourself through practice of any of breathing and it will be perfectly alright as the function of aerating the blood will undoubtedly be carried on in a normal manner, though it is quite evident that in ordinary breathing, a certain type of breathing is peculiar to each of the sexes. Certainly, it would be foolish for a woman to cultivate the practice of the bringing the diaphram and lower chest into predominate action; and in the same way it seems to us that for the male sex, the proper method of breathing under ordinary circumstances, is by the principal use of the diaphram, with the lower chest playing a minor part.

We have shown elsewhere that the amount of air normally inhaled and exhaled during ordinary breathing is comparatively small, but still sufficient to support the normal body functions. When a man, particularly an athlete, exerts himself vigorously, he is quit apt to breathe sufficiently deep, and you will soon find that the control is principally diaphragmatic, with the other muscles just mentioned carrying on their work; and in very forced breathing, the neck and shoulder muscles will do a good part of the work.

The sensible thing, if you to insure correct breathing, is to thoroughly develop the body and keep it first class working order by means of regular healthful exertions.



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PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - CHAPTER 6 - DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION - Also Diet Suggestions for Maintaining Health - By Mark H. Berry

When the subject of physical training is mentioned to the average person, they immediately think of a special diet or the college training table. On the other hand, mention the term physical culture, and the average person thinks of vegetarianism. However, as we know, there is a group of physical culturists who are constantly in physical training, and to whom there is no such thing as a training table; nor does the subject of a meatless diet appeal to them. These are the men whom I prefer to call Practical Physical Culturists, comprised of advanced bar bell men. My reason for referring to bar bell men as "practical physical culturists" in a practical sense: in other words, they depend on real exercise for the promotion of health, whereas too many persons who prefer to be known as physical culturists rely on diet, fasting, water, bathing, and in fact, practically everything but physical exercise or real physical culture.

It seems to me that it would be possible to write volumes on this angle of the physical training question, without causing myself any worry or undue trouble. Don't misunderstand me, please, as I recognize the value of dietetics in the promotion of health, but at the same time I distinguish between sensible eating and faddism.

Over twelve years ago, I changed to a mixed diet after having lived on a meatless diet for eight years. During a good part of that time, my vegetarianism was so strict that peanut butter was used instead of the cow variety. I made a thorough study of the subject, and can say with every degree of confidence that my diet was as sound as that of the most scientific vegetarian. Reading voraciously every book and article on the subject obtainable I followed the masters who convinced physical culturists they were leading them to emancipation from weakness, disease, and every other human sin and evil through the religion of diet; even war and murder could be overcome, we were told, by easing the annual slaughter of innocent animals. I have since learned that some of the foremost protagonist of a bloodless dietary, preceded me in reversal of ideas on the consumption of foodstuffs. The outstanding evil in the vegetarian doctrine is that some of those who preach loudest on the merits of a meatless diets are hypocrites. They simply don't practice what they preach. They lead thousands of people into buying proprietary foods and meat substitutes, and though they cannot be classed as prevaricators, due to not openly claiming to follow a meatless diet, nevertheless the inference is drawn by the eager enthusiasts who follow such teachings and become emaciated.

For female typists who perform no kind of physical exercise, or for males who prefer to lead and effortless, effeminate sort of an existence, some of the meatless, raw food, milk and nut diets will serve to keep skin and bone together. If my reader happens to be that kind of male ( I won't say man) then you may suit yourself, but you are simply wasting your time reading a book on vigorous, manly exercise.

Those who suffer with a venereal taint in the blood may realize satisfactory results on some of those diets, but not the man who wishes to be 100 % masculine, vigorous, muscular, and energetic. I simply do not know of any vegetarian strong men, or of any physical culturist who has advanced to physical perfection on a vegetarian diet. I do know of some good men of muscle who like to eat vegetarian meals occasionally, and for the sake of novelty I enjoy eating in certain vegetarian restaurants in New York City. I am even convinced that it would be beneficial to the health of many people to eat fairly regularly in some of those restaurants. I would go so far as to advise anyone who wished to gain weight to eat one meal every day in of the first class vegetarian restaurants in New York City, providing they would eat a full meal and not be afraid of overeating. Some of the foods you may get there are extremely filling, and when plenty of liquid is included, added bodyweight should be forthcoming. Still, everyone may not take to the strange dietary so readily, as the following incident will prove.

In the company of Mr. Siegmund Klein and other New York strength fans, I have often enjoyed a vegetarian meal. On one occasion we took a group of visiting strong men to one of the restaurants referred to above, thinking it would be a novel treat. Instead, two of our friends actually became sickened and disgusted attempting to eat the imitation meats. That is a general attitude we have found among strong men: they abhor the idea of trying to eat such mystery foods and prefer substantial, every-day grub, as we might say.

There can be no practically sensible reason for carrying on a discussion on the merits and demerits of different foods. It would take a volume or more to do so, and then the chances are you would be more confused than ever. Generally when one of my pupils requests information on the proper diet for increasing bodyweight, the following advice is give: Eat three good-sized meals daily, including plenty of meat, thick soups, potatoes, spaghetti, macaroni, eggs, cheese, beans, peas, cereals and cream, bread (preferably whole grain) and lots of butter, fresh vegetables of every kind, also green and leafy vegetables in abundance, and fruits, fresh, canned, and stewed. In other words, we might as well say, eat everything that is wholesome and nourishing. For the purposes of gaining bodyweight or maintaining a high degree of physical efficiency we believe in three good solid meals each and every day. Soup, preferably of the thick variety, with both the noon and evening meals, and a good amount of liquids with the meals. In the army, we observed the extraordinary gains of bodyweight made by the new recruits: by questioning and observation we learned the men were eating more than the customary amount, also more regularly, and including a great deal more liquid with their meals. Of course, a more active life and regular hours had considerable to do with it.

The individual who is accustomed to hard work, especially out-of-doors, is able to eat much larger quantities; in fact he needs it. For breakfast he could include eggs and bacon, oatmeal, cornmeal, and in fact, a much heavier sort of dietary, while at lunch and dinner, or dinner and supper, the active man would best eat about the same sort of meal as above outlined. The athlete in training should try hard to include digestible foods and eat about the same as the hard-working man, being sure to make his dietary wholesome and of wide variety. So long as foods are relished and cause no bad effects, they can be eaten by one who is active.

Some people advocate skipping a meal now and then, but to do so is really liable to lead to bad habits of elimination. There is nothing so beneficial to the promotion of perfect health as getting into the habit of regular hours of elimination. The internal eliminative organs will perform their duties like clock work, providing you give them some encouragement, and besides establishing regular hours for the purpose, eating three times daily is most important. Not so long ago, a noted authority on gastro-enterology delivered an address over the radio. He stated among other important things that some solid food should be included with every meal, and meals should not be skipped.

For the proper regulation of the body, we advocate eating stewed fruits such as prunes, apricots, or peaches, with your breakfast every morning; also eating generous portions of spinach, cabbage, or other similar foods at your other tow meals; the system requires a great amount of roughage to properly carry on the function of elimination. Persons suffering from a ptsoed and inflamed condition of the intestinal tract may find it necessary to eliminate all rough and coarse foods from the diet until the trouble is overcome. That is a condition requiring the attention of a physician. A suitable diet in such case a case would be one wherein soft, blend foods predominated.

Many thin underweight persons have a ptosed condition of the stomach and intestines which means a sagging or dropped condition of the organs, preventing them form emptying food in a normal manner, thereby causing the retained food to ferment and putrify. This condition is due to a lack of internal fat, which would hold the organs in their normal position. They must endeavor to correct this condition by overcoming the congestion of the dropped organs and encourage the accumulation of internal fat. The physician, when consulted concerning ptosed organs, will generally prescribe a proper fitting abdominal belt, which should be put on while in a recumbent position, and taken off in the same way, and worn at all times when on the feet. The following should prove of benefit in raising sagging organs: while lying down, try to push the congested organ upwards with gentle but firm manipulations of the hands; then try to widen the diaphragm arch by placing the fingers under the lower ribs, and while taking short, quick breaths force the ribs outward.

Diet suggestions for those with sagging organs and much underweight: eat quite large meals of well cooked cereals like cream of wheat, or wheatena, corn starch, mashed potatoes, toasted white bread, macaroni, spaghetti, fresh greens and vegetables, cornmeal, thick soups, and eat plenty of fruits, but have them stewed and strained so they are free of all skins, seeds and coarse particles. Drink buttermilk and milk in fair quantities. It is best to have all vegetables mashed, and the meat broiled, with milk scalded before drinking. Sugar and cream, jellies, gelatin and puddings may be eaten.

As to coffee and tea, we believe them harmless so far as the average, healthy male is concerned. If you find them harmful in your case, or prefer not to drink them, substitute cereal coffee or cocoa. Warm drinks with the meals are most beneficial to the digestive processes. There is something we might mention in connection with beverages and drinking water which is not generally understood. Many persons believe it essential to drink hot water for the correction of constipation, while in fact, hot water has the opposite internal action. You may recall that many people suffer from dysentery or diarrhea during the summertime, induced by the eating or drinking of too much cold stuff, which chills the internal organs and bring on the trouble. The drinking of scalded milk is known as a reliable remedy, but other hot drinks will achieve the same result. However, if you are troubled with constipation it is not a good idea to drink too much of cold beverages in an attempt to overcome the trouble.

The vigorous man should not know he possesses a stomach, and it is a fact that strong men seldom pay attention to their stomachs. On the other hand, those who worry about the food they eat and try to pamper the stomach, somehow or other are certain to have cause for worry. As long as you exercise strenuously at fairly regularly intervals, and an attempt is made to eat sensible combinations of wholesome food, the stomach is best left alone. Truly, we do not advocate gorging or over-eating and just because a man is unusually strong is no reason for him expecting to abuse himself and get away with it. Louis Cyr was one example of the strong man who abused himself in this respect. He was accustomed to engaging in eating marathons with Horace Barre and other men. It is said of Cyr that he would eat a dozen eggs at one meal and then sit and control his abdominal muscles, thinking he was aiding to the digestion of the excess food. This sort of thing undoubtedly led to his demise at an earlier age than he should have died. Still it may be like the man who lived to be 96 and failed to live to a hundred because he drank too much whiskey all his life.

Children need more food in proportion to their weight than adults, because they are more active internally and externally, and must provide for the growth of the new tissue; also due to a relatively greater loss of heat, owing to a comparatively larger body surface. Advancing age usually means a less active life as well as less active metabolism. For a healthy person leading a normal life, appetite and experience seem safe guides by which to control the diet. They will at least prevent under nutrition and the consequent lessening of the body's natural powers of resistance to disease. We will refer to this question a little later.

Dieticians have worked out a system of figuring the bodily heat and energy requirements by setting a standard unit with which to make their computations; this is termed a calorie, which represents the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water on centigrade degree or two degrees Fahrenheit. Different foodstuffs produce different quantities of heat. For instance, each gram of fat produces about 9.3 calories, each gram of carbohydrates about 4.1 calories, and each gram of proteins about the same.

When you get down to the practical side, there seems to be something wrong about trying to proportion your food to suit the calorie tables, as it is found that persons living under like conditions, seem to require very much smaller quantities of proteins and of energy than others. One person could live on what might starve others, while some would be continually overfed. It has been the experience of some persons by means of experimenting, that a dietary of just the correct amount of calories will not give sufficient food quantity to satisfy the appetite day after day. A strict regime of that sort will always tend to grown tiresome, and in time the subject of the experiment will have a continual longing for more food. Some additional quantity is disposed of in the system which cannot be accounted for by means of instruments or experiments. Presumably this extra quantity is used to keep the body at par, or to store up a reserve. Reserve energy in the body is something quite indefinable with our present degree of knowledge, but the glands store up a reserve in a mysterious manner.

It is our contention that persons who limit the food intake and lead an active life weaken themselves in some way. We have observed this among our acquaintances, and although we have said nothing and they are probably unaware of the fact, we believe in our own mind that some weakened condition can be observed. Sometimes we have felt this was reflected in premature baldness among athletes, but others cases would seems to disprove the baldness theory. Of one thing we seem to be certain, and that is those who limit their food intake beyond reasonable requirements are not very active sexually; whether or not that is an important question to most of you; but in the final analysis, we believe it to be a salient point in determining the effects of your manner of living upon your vitality and virility. Should I offend anyone in this respect, I wish to be pardoned, but fundamentally if my theory could be properly substantiated in fact, it would prove of utmost importance in the scheme of real physical fitness. From a personal knowledge of many men, and due to my position giving me entrance to the intimate personal facts in the lives of many men, I am somewhat convinced on this one point. My old grandfather, who in many is respects is quite a sage for wisdom, has held such and opinion for many years; he has long been energetic and youthful far out of the ordinary for one of his years.

We might give the following figures for those interested in the calorie system, though these can only be given as approximate when applied to general cases, but will give an idea of the bodily requirements in this respect. A person leading a quiet inactive life would require about fifteen calories for pound of bodyweight daily; one who is moderately active would need eighteen to twenty calories per pound of bodyweight; while a hard-working man or strenuously engaged athlete would need twenty to twenty-five. In attempting to compute your diet on this basis, do not forget what we have just said about allowing some extra quantity to satisfy the appetite and assure the body of complete nutrition.

Experiments have prove that a diet of only proteins, carbohydrates and fats will not be sufficient to properly sustain life. A certain other element is necessary, known as vitamins; these do not serve a s source of energy, but are in some way essential to metabolism, though their exact nature has not been determined. Pellagra, scurvy, and beriberi, as well as various forms of acidosis are caused by a deficiency in vitamins. They are found in fresh fruits, the skins and peelings of vegetables, milk, eggs, and in the bran of rice, wheat and other cereals. Foods are robbed of this element when the bran is removed as in white flour and polished rice, or when potatoes are peeled, or in the boiling of vegetables and throwing away the water in which they were boiled. Paper bag, waterless, and steam cookery all originated in an attempt to preserve these vital elements and mineral salts; as even in the steam or vapor passing off when cooking, the vegetables are robbed of such essentials.

Digestion is not, as some persons are inclined to believe, confined to the stomach, but essentially digestion includes all the processes which assist in preparing the food for use in the body. The first step is in the mouth where the food is ground up by the teeth so that it shall present a greater surface to the action of the digestive juices, and where it is mixed with the salivary juices making it suitable for passage into the stomach, there to be mixed and churned with other juices; the stomach also acts as a reservoir to properly distribute the mixed food into the small intestine for further digestion and where the greater amount of assimilation takes place.

A special adaptation to food is seen in all the digestive secretions, and it well shown in the salivary glands. A copious watery secretion is evoked by the presence of dry food in the mouth, but a thick mucoid secretion is passed out on moist particles of tasty food; and example of the purposive nature of the secretion. The watery saliva moistens dry food, the mucoid secretion welds the food into a bolus, preparatory to its being swallowed. The character and nature of the gastric secretion also depend on the nature of the food. A rapid secretion of effective juice is poured out on flesh foods, a scanty secretion in the case of milk is due to the fat contained therein; fat inhibits gastric secretion; the secretion evoked by the ingestion of milk is found to be the weakest gastric juice of all, and , in addition, the pancreatic juice secreted is the least in amount. That is, when an equivalent quantity of nitrogenous food is given as flesh, bread or milk, the least secreting activity is evoked in the case of milk. The secretion poured out on milk is effective, but at the same time economic. The importance of milk as a food is apparent from this, and particularly when economy of digestive gland activity is important.

What we have mentioned in connection with the action of gastric juices on fat, prompts us to mention a few words concerning the eating of fried foodstuffs. When fried in the ordinary manner, that is, in shallow grease, the fat or grease permeates the entire article of food. The gastric secretions cannot then properly act on the food. If the frying is done in deep grease, so that the food sinks entirely beneath the surface, the hot grease forms a coating around the food, making it more desirable for health purposes.

To properly understand your body, the means of bringing about a general improvement, and the constant maintenance of a high degree of efficiency, it is necessary to posses a thorough knowledge of digestion and related functions, which also includes circulation and respiration. He who attempts to control his health by diet alone can succeed but partially, as a thorough reading of the chapters on respiration and circulation will prove.



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PHYSICAL TRAINING SIMPLIFIED - The Complete Science of Muscular Development - (circa 1930) - Introduction to the chapters that follow - By Mark H. Berry

SOME IMPORTANT STUDIES IN PHYSIOLOGY IN THREE SECTIONS OR CHAPTERS

A) Digestion and Diet. B) Respiration. C) Circulation. Also a Short Introductory Chapter

The physical culture enthusiast may be gravely informed by some of his friends that it is a natural impossibility to increase the size of one's muscles by means of exercise. Indeed, some physicians may even hold this view, while at the same time admitting the beneficial effect of regular exercise. A brief study of the essentials of physiology will bear out the theory of increasing muscular size by means of the proper sort of exercise, as well as creating additional strength and functional powers. Of course, we who have experienced a physical transformation, and have observed the effects of exercise and healthful living in countless other cases, do not need a scientific explanation to convince us of the truth. However, a great many things take place in the transformation of a weakling to an athlete by means of exercise. Providing the exercise is of a general nature and thoroughly vigorous (none other should be considered), the breaking down of the tissue cells incidental to increased exertion creates a demand for oxygen, which increases the functional activities of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels, and in order to repair the waste going on, a greater amount of nourishment is abstracted from the food taken into the stomach, thus we cause a more healthy condition of the respiratory, circulatory, and digestive powers. The muscle grows because of increased nourishment in the part.

Muscular growth and efficiency is likewise promoted through increased vascularity; that is, by enlargement and greater elasticity of the blood vessels supplying the muscles; a greater flow of blood is constantly passing through the muscles instead of lying stagnant in the abdomen or innermost parts of the body. It is also possible, in the body of the habitually inactive person, for the blood to circulate but weakly in the muscles, the greater amount of circulation taking place in the larger blood vessels. This condition is far from being conducive to health. The obese person has an accumulation of adipose tissue in excess in various parts of his body, representing so much waste matter; constricting the action of the blood vessels and internal organs. Healthful activity burns up the excess fat and renders the individual more efficient. Many persons eat large quantities of food with no apparent benefit to themselves. When the system has no demand for the entire quantity of food, a resulting clogging takes place in the internal organs and the individual suffers one form or another of disease.

Those who remain emaciated even when eating excessively suffer similarly but in a slightly different way. Due to no demand for nourishment on the part of the tissue cells, the system is taxed to take care of, and eliminate digested food matter, or possibly partly digested matter. A lack of proper assimilation is responsible for both the obese and emaciated conditions. Healthful exercise creates a demand for nourishment which appropriates the nutritive properties from the food; and, as we have shown, the entire system of life forces receives beneficial stimulation.

On the face of the matter, it must seem rather queer and somewhat mysterious in the mind of a deep thinking novice in physical culture to be told that a few months of regular exercise will cause an individual to gain weight. Think it over in a serious manner and see if you can actually link together a substantial chain of events which will bring about the accumulation of added healthy flesh. The theory of exercise attempts to establish that without changing the diet or amount of food taken into the stomach, the individual will gain from fifteen to fifty pounds within a period of time, varying from two to five or six months. And the only thing required of the individual is to perform a stipulated routine of movements known as physical exercise. That is the theory behind the propaganda of exercise; a theory which has been proven as practical in countless cases. A most mysterious and complicated system of vital functions is responsible for the enlargement of the human muscles, resulting in added bodyweight.

The real answer to this question would involve an endless train of facts and functions closely connected with the mystery of life itself. However, to come to a satisfactory understanding of the matter, we can trace this mystery by starting with the first circumstance which for the time will be considered responsible. You perform a physical movement known as exercise which consists of bending your arm. The biceps muscle of the upper arm is involved. The muscular bulk is interwoven with blood vessels, veins, and arteries; the activity of the muscle facilitates the passage of blood in its veins; that is, the contraction of the muscle squeezes the blood through its veins; as the veins contain small valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards, the blood is sent flowing with greater force towards the heart. The displaced blood must be augmented by fresh supply, which is drawn from the arteries through the capillaries. Thus the circulation of blood is stirred up to a certain extent beyond the normal rate. The smaller cells and tissues which compose the muscular bulk are broken down by the exertion, hence there is waste to be carried off by the venous blood, and the new material to replace it must be furnished by the blood from the capillaries.

Carbonic acid is formed by the breaking down of the tissues, which must be carried off by the venous blood; oxygen is required to repair the damage, which is carried to the tissues by the arterial blood drawn through the capillaries. Having established the improvement of muscles by constant activity interspersed with a proper amount of rest, we also find that veins of slightly larger size will permit a greater flow of blood to and from the muscles. Tissues generally develop in proportion to their vascularity, or the amount of blood which can be furnished when required.

We will show, later in this volume, that health cannot be maintained by eating alone, nor by breathing deeply without accompanying the breathing with strenuous exertions. Instead of telling one to eat carefully or to breathe deeply, to stir up the vital forces, we find that in order to cause one to be healthier and stronger we must change his physique to a better standard, stir up his sluggish circulation into a vital current of life; in that way alone may we succeed in making his internal vital organs stronger and capable of greater resistance to disease, a physically and mentally more efficient example of mankind.

After reading that which follows, you may be doubtful concerning the correctness of other theories and explanations you have read. There has been a terrible lot of foolish wild stuff propounded on the physical training question. A good deal of it wholly unfounded in fact. The basic principles of the conclusions given herein are purely physiological in the truest sense of the word.

Just how valuable this information may be to the average reader is rather difficult to state. A complete knowledge of the body processes should, it would seem, prove interesting as well as valuable to any serious minded physical culturist. Particularly so, the mysterious functions connected with the nutrition of the muscular fibres of the body. To begin with, let us ask ourselves a few questions dealing with the subject at hand. What happens to a muscle when you cause it to contract? Do tissues break down? If so, how are they built up again? Why do you get out of breath and why does your heart beat fast? Don't say that these are foolish questions and that the answers are quite obvious.



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